Water scarcity and drought

Madagascar is becoming increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and related disasters, namely drought, cyclones and flooding. While it is well-recognised that southern Madagascar has been suffering from drought for decades, it has not yet been properly acknowledged that northern Madagascar (The Diana region, Antsiranana and surrounding villages (e.g. Namakia)). Andranovondronina is also beginning to feel the impacts of drought. This is particularly affecting small-holder farmers who rely on rain-fed agriculture for both food and income. The climate of northern Madagascar is typically categorised as "transition tropical", so the onset of drought could also have major implications for the rest of the island. Northern Madagascar used to have a 6-month dry season and a 6-month rainy season, but the length of the rainy season has reduced significantly in recent years and is now locally considered a "cyclone season". More people are relying on groundwater, which is often contaminated with bacteria and excrement, leading to an increase in water-borne diseases and illnesses.

The water supply in Platfontein comes from the water distribution system but it is contaminated and therefore not safe to drink. That might be because Platfontein is closer to Kimberly which is a mining town as water in mining towns usually has a problem. In Richards Bay (another mining town) there is a lot of salt in the water and in Kimberly there is a lot of dirt in the water. For example, if you were to boil the water from Kimberly you will see dirt at the bottom of your kettle with brown stains which are hard to remove. This just shows how dirty the water is. And if there have been water cuts for a couple of days and when you try to open tap the water will be brown, which is a major problem in Platfontein, hence the need for better water purification systems in place. As a result of consuming contaminated water, people in Platfontein are already suffering from water-related illnesses including diarrhea and skin conditions.

The Samburu community in Kenya are pastoralists as they keep animals which is their main source of livelihood. They move from place to place in search of adequate pasture lands and water. Due to the recent dry spell, water sources are dry and there is no water. Both women and girls are walking long distances of about 20 kilometres per day to search for water. This search usually goes on from day until night. In order to save the water they bring back home, some women and girls bath wherever they find the water. The long journeys they partake on in search for and carrying water has impacted their wellbeing as some of them are suffering from backaches. In addition, the water they collect is not so clean to be suitable for drinking, but because they have no other options, they consume this water resulting in them suffering from water-related illnesses. School children have to bring their own water in one or two litre bottles from their homes to school because there is no water in school.

Egypt faces significant water scarcity due to its arid climate, rapid population growth, and dependency on the Nile River. Limited rainfall and inefficient water management exacerbate the crisis. Space technology can play a crucial role in monitoring water resources, optimizing agricultural water use, and identifying potential groundwater sources.

Jordan’s water scarcity is primarily driven by overextraction of groundwater resources, inadequate rainfall, and inefficient water management practices. The country’s renewable water resources are estimated at less than 100 cubic meters per capita annually, far below the water poverty threshold of 500 cubic meters per capita. The overuse of aquifers, such as the Disi and Azraq aquifers, has led to water quality degradation and declining availability (Al-Zu’bi, 2007). The issue is exacerbated by climate change, which has resulted in erratic rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and prolonged droughts (Al-Karablieh et al., 2016). Additionally, the rapid population increase, including the influx of refugees, has intensified demand for water resources. Agricultural activities, which consume approximately 50% of the country’s water supply, often rely on inefficient irrigation methods that contribute to groundwater depletion. If left unaddressed, the crisis will continue to threaten Jordan’s water security, agriculture, and public health.

Water scarcity episodes followed by flooding events demands human intelligence and technological intervention for proper administration, to protect lives and valuable resources needed to sustain life.

There are times when the high demand for water in West Africa, particularly in the Sahel region, surpasses the supply, or when poor quality makes it difficult to use. Freshwater resources suffer from a decline in quantity due to water stress (dry rivers, over-exploitation of aquifers, etc.). Because of this scarcity, disputes between consumers of water are common. Uncontrolled urban growth makes poor sanitation worse since treated wastewater is thrown into rivers, lakes, and the ocean.

Groundwater is a critical resource for drinking water, agriculture, and industry. With increasing anthropogenic activities and exponentially increasing population, groundwater in India is facing several challenges, related to quality as well as quantity, due to over-extraction, pollution, and climate change. Over-exploitation of groundwater may impact the availability and quality of groundwater which is not sustainable. Moreover, due to pollution in surface water, groundwater quality is also affected. In most of the cities of India, the quality of groundwater is below standard. Remote sensing and artificial intelligence can play a very vital role in monitoring the quantity as well as quality of groundwater. As, it is clear that presently no remote sensors can directly be used for groundwater observations, but by using surface features anomalies and gravity data obtained by various satellites, optimal groundwater management can be done using remote sensing. Space4water is one of the best communities addressing water related issues and work towards sustainable solutions. For the last three years, I am following this community, and I find that the community consists of scientists, NGO, policy makers etc. This combination has the potential to resolve issues related to any challenges related to social issues. I am looking for few global research partners who work for groundwater management using space technology. I am equally looking for data driven resource persons who can collaborate with me on real field conditions of various countries, related to groundwater management. What has been done so far is listed below: • Worked on GRACE satellite data and used it in field condition to study groundwater anomalies of few cities of India. • Developed spatio-temporal maps of Standardized Groundwater Index (SGI). • Worked on water quality of water bodies. • Used various satellite data to map water spread areas of various water bodies. • Worked on machine learning models to study in situ remediation of contaminated groundwater.

Water availability is a critical issue for smallholder farmers in Southwest Kyrgyzstan, where natural springs serve as the primary water source for irrigation, livestock, and household use. However, these springs are becoming increasingly unreliable due to climate change, land degradation, and inefficient management practices. Water-related challenges include: Seasonal and interannual fluctuations in spring discharge, leading to water shortages during dry periods. Climate change impacts, such as rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, reducing groundwater recharge. Water loss due to inefficient infrastructure, including seepage and evaporation from open channels. Lack of monitoring and sustainable management strategies, leading to overuse and depletion of spring water resources. These challenges directly impact agricultural productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods, making it essential to develop adaptive water management strategies to optimize spring water use and ensure long-term sustainability. This research focuses on hydrological assessments, water conservation techniques, and community-based management approaches to improve water security for smallholder farmers in the region.

This challenge centers on Jordan’s worsening water crisis, one of the most severe globally. The country faces chronic water scarcity due to naturally low rainfall, limited renewable water sources, and rapid population growth. The crisis is further intensified by climate-driven droughts and unsustainable groundwater extraction, which together threaten long-term water security. The challenge aims to develop space-based monitoring and management strategies to better understand, predict, and mitigate the compounding impacts of drought and groundwater depletion on national water systems.

The Congo Basin (CB), home to the world’s second-largest river basin and tropical rainforest (Laraque et al., 2020), holds significant groundwater resources (Kasongo-Numbi, 2008; MacDonald et al., 2012; Tourian et al., 2023). Despite the abundance of surface water within the region, groundwater is a crucial source of freshwater for the vast majority of the CB’s population. It plays a vital role in sustaining human consumption, particularly for the rural population, also, for ecosystems and agriculture even though the latter is still rainfed. Domestic water use constitutes the first sector that withdraw the large amount of groundwater in the basin. The water withdrawal is projected to grow significantly due to the human population that is expected to double by 2050 in Africa (Partow, 2011, United Nations, 2019). Additionally, considering the emerging importance of the global change due to climate change and environmental alterations that have already affected surface water within the basin (Reed and Miranda, 2007; Wongchuig et al., 2023), groundwater is likely to become a critical resource for future development in the region. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a sustainable groundwater management. However, groundwater management in the CB faces numerous challenges.