Water scarcity and drought are pressing global challenges that threaten societies, economies and ecosystems. Climate change is altering rainfall patterns, leading to more frequent and prolonged droughts that reduce the availability of surface and soil water. At the same time, water demand is rising due to population growth, agricultural intensification, industrial activity and energy production. Together, these factors intensify pressure on already limited water resources (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions 2025).
Drought events create a vicious cycle. Less rainfall reduces aquifer and surface water replenishment, which in turn increases pressure on remaining water reserves. During droughts, water consumption often rises, especially in agriculture, further straining resources. These processes not only disrupt food production but also compromise ecosystem services such as wetland stability and river flows.
Space technologies to support managing water scarcity and drought
Monitoring, predicting and mitigating drought therefore require continuous and large-scale observations. Space provides consistent global data on precipitation, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, vegetation health and surface water changes (Gebrechorkos et al. 2023). When combined with ground-based data and GIS systems, satellite observations can support early warning systems, guide sustainable water management and improve resilience to drought and scarcity.
| Components | Variables | Space-based technology | Example missions |
| Drought and soil moisture | Drought index | SPEI Potential evapotranspiration (PET) | Derived from precipitation (GPM, MODIS, CERES, etc.) and temperature data (MODIS,CERES, ECOSTRESS, etc.) |
| Vegetation health | VIS, NIR, TIR | MODIS, Sentinel-2 (Vegetation condition index (VCI) | |
| Soil moisture | Passive microwave radiometry, SAR | SMAP SMOS ALOS (PALSAR) Sentinel-1 GCOM (AMSR2) Aqua (AMSU-A) RISAT | |
| Surface water | River discharge and streamflow | Radar altimetry, interferometry, gravity anomalies | |
| Reservoir storage | Optical sensors, radar altimetry | ||
| Precipitation | Rainfall intensity | Active and passive microwave sensors | GPM AQUA TROPCIS TMPA CHIRPS (IR, VIS, NIR) AMSR2 (GCOMW1) SSMIS (DMSP) MetOpB/C |
Example cases
In Jordan, renewable water resources amount to less than 100 cubic meters per capita annually, far below the 500 cubic meters threshold of severe water poverty. The water scarcity of the country is intensified by overextraction of critical aquifers such as the Disi and Azraq. This leads to declining water quality and climate change effects including erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts. Population pressures, particularly due to refugee inflows and inefficient agricultural practices, further strain the system. To address these challenges, Jordan is advancing large-scale projects such as the Aqaba-Amman Water Desalination and Conveyance Project, which is expected to supply about 300 million cubic meters of freshwater annually, potentially covering one-third of its water demand (UNOOSA 2025).
Egypt depends almost entirely on the Nile, yet per-capita water availability is projected to fall below 600 cubic meters by 2025. The Nile Delta is sinking and highly exposed to sea-level rise, with studies suggesting up to half its area could be submerged by 2100. Rising seas and subsidence are already affecting cities such as Alexandria where saltwater intrusion and land loss threaten agriculture and food security (UNOOSA 2024).
The Indo-Gangetic Plain is similarly under stress, not only from groundwater depletion but also from the pollution of its surface waters. Meanwhile, Egypt faces persistent challenges due to inadequate water management and minimal rainfall, leaving the country highly vulnerable to drought and overuse of limited groundwater resources.
